Cognitive Psychology and Modern Policing Essays -- Psychology Criminal

The intention of this essay is to explore the area surrounding how cognitive psychology has affected or disaffected policing practices and the positive or negative outcomes of it. To do this, a deeper understanding of the terms cognitive and psychology, along with their interactive relationship had to be expounded. The scope of cognitive psychology is vast in relation to the public and police, particularly due to the fact that it is an individual process with many external mitigating factors. Therefore I have attempted to narrow the field and concentrate on a couple of specific examples of the use of cognitive psychology, while attempting to explain the theories behind the processes. What is psychology? In basic terms it is simply the study of the mind, but that very general description has a much wider application as the psychology of today differs from that of two centuries ago. Psychology as a discipline dates back to the nineteenth century when a philosopher named William Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory at a German university. What Wundt and his co-workers attempted to do was to investigate the mind through introspection, which was observing and analysing the structure of the subjects conscious mental processes, (Thoughts, images and feelings), under controlled conditions. Today's psychology has dramatically changed and is now focused on how ones behaviour changes as a result of experience. Cognitive means to learn, to observe, to experience. When applied to psychology it is further broken down into how that particular learning observations and experience directs a person's development. Factors such as physical, emotional, educational and behavioural cognitive (copycat learning) are influenced by parents... ...orary Psychology (Dec 2001) APA review of Books Volume 46, No 6 Gleitman (1992) Basic Psychology (third edition): WW Norton & Co Harrison, P. (1983) Inside the Inner City; Penguin Books Hollin. C, Koppen. P, Penrod. S (2003) Psychology, Crime and Law (journal); Volume 9, No 2: Brunner Routledge King. R, Winchup. E, (2000) Doing Research on Crime and Justice: Oxford University Press McLaughlin and Muncie (2001) The Sage Dictionary of Criminology: Sage Publications Maguire. M, Morgan. R, Reiner. R (1994) Oxford Handbook of Criminology: Oxford Press Roger, Hopkins, Burke (1998) Zero Tolerance Policing: Perpetuity Press Rose, D (1992) A Climate of Fear: Bloomsbury Press S.E.G. Lea (1984) Instinct, Environment and Behaviour: New essential Psychology Talor, Peplau, Sears (1994) Social Psychology (eighth edition): Prentice-Hall

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There are various ways in which we can organise our thinking. These can be helpful when we are trying to improve our memory or when trying to recall things from the past. The three ways I am about to explain are all similar in the way we organise our thinking, and can be a powerful aid to our memory. Each point is backed up with evidence to support this. One of the ways we organise our thinking is by using mental images. By forming a mental image, we are thinking about something by constructing a mental picture of it in our mind.There are various ways of constructing mental images which can lead to better recall when trying to remember things. The mental image will give us a cue when we come to recalling the information. We will have spent time and effort studying the information previously and formed an image which we will have fixed in our memory. This will then help us to recall the information more easily. One technique for improving memory would be by using Mnemonics, which are based on the construction of mental images.An example of a mnemonic would be ‘Never Eat Shredded Wheat’ which would help us to remember ‘North, East, South and West’ in the right order. Another technique for improving memory would be the key word technique. The key word technique is useful when trying to learn a foreign language. To form the key word, you would find an English word or words that sound like the foreign word. Then you would make a mental image of the key word, along with the English translation, and this would be the key word technique.To prove that this technique is successful, Michael Raugh and Richard Atkinson (1975) carried out an experiment on two groups of participants using the key word technique. The participants were asked to memorise sixty Spanish words, but only one group were taught to use the key word technique. The participants using the key word technique scored much higher than the participants that did not use it. Another way we can organise our thinking is by forming concepts. A concept formation is a way of organising our thoughts by putting them into categories.One example of this would be ‘food’ which is a concept that has sub-concepts, such as fruit, meat and vegetables. We could then divide these sub-concepts into further sub-concepts; for example, fruit would be divided into pears, grapes, bananas, apples, etc. The use of concepts can improve memory by helping us when recalling information by putting them into categories. Take a practical situation for example, such as finding an item in a messy drawer. Trying to extract the item from the drawer would prove difficult and would take quite some time to find.However if this drawer was organised into different sections, then it would be a lot easier to find what you are looking for. We develop the same system when using concepts to organise our thinking when recalling information, thus improving our memory. An experiment to prove how con cepts can improve our recall was developed by Weston Bousfield (1953). Participants were asked to learn sixty words that could be placed into four categories. The words were mixed up, but the participants seemed to remember the words more easily when knowing they could be grouped with other words in the same category.So taking the word cat, they would remember the words dog, mouse and rabbit. In similar experiments, by being given the category headings, most participants find that this gives them a cue to access more words. Finally, we can organise our thinking by using schemas. A schema is a mental framework of knowledge about certain situations, objects, people, places and even yourself. Schemas are developed as a result of your experiences of the world and how you think about certain things. For example, if you were to think of the word ‘hospital’, your schema would include a list of everything you associate with a hospital.For example, hospital beds, the smell of cl eaning fluids, ambulance sirens, doctors and nurses, etc. Schemas can help provide a cue to prompt our memory when coming to recalling information. We will have stored the information in a specific category so that it can be recalled more easily. One example of this is shown in an experiment carried out by John Bransford and Marcia Johnson (1972). Participants were read a passage which described in detail the process of washing clothes, however they were not told that the title was ‘washing clothes’.Many of the participants found that they had difficulty in understanding the passage and were unable to recall the details. However once the participants were given the title to the passage, this provided the schema which helped them to recall the information more easily. Although schemas are an efficient way of helping us to organise our thinking by providing a cue when recalling information, they can also distort our recall and lead us astray. Evidence to prove this was ca rried out in a study by William Brewer (1981) to prove the distorting effects of schemas on memory.The participants were taken into an office and asked to wait for 35 seconds. They were then taken into another room and asked to recall the contents that they had seen in the office. Participants recalled the items that are fitting with a typical office schema; however they had failed to notice other objects in the room such as a brick and a pair of pliers, even recalling items such as a telephone which were not in the office. This study shows that we often adjust our recalled information so that it is in fitting with our existing schemas.In some cases this could have a detrimental effect, especially if you have witnessed a crime and need to be called to give an eye witness testimony. When coming to recalling events that happened in the past, there is a chance that the gaps in your memory will be unconsciously filled by inferences. In conclusion, mental images can improve our memory by forming a mental image in our mind, concepts by organising our thoughts and putting them into categories and schemas by developing a mental framework of our knowledge of our experiences.Each of these ways can give us a cue when we come to recalling information, thus improving our memory. However, although these ideas of organising our thinking may help us to improve our memory, they can also distort our recall and lead us astray.Word count = 1,095 References Spoors, P. , Dyer, E. , Finlay, L. and Marsh, G. (2011) starting with psychology, Milton Keynes, The Open University.

Organizational Behavior Unit 2 Discussion Essay

Attitudes and Behavior interrelates with each other. Important attitudes such as â€Å"self-interest† (Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A.2007) or that identifies with a group that is valued shows a strong relationship to behavior. Job involvement, job satisfaction and organizational commitment are moderating factors that can improve the statistical relationship between employee behavior and attitudes. An employee’s job involvement relates to how strongly they can identify with the work they care about in which they consider â€Å"their perceived work performance level important to self-worth† (Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A.2007). This basically means that employees who are deeply involved in their job are mostly satisfied and maintains a high performance in productivity than the employees who are dissatisfied. When an employee is satisfied with their job they are more confident and perform more positively with their productivity and maintains efficiency. Organizational commitment is a job attitude in which an employee identifies with an organization and its goals. Affective commitment (emotional attachment). Continuance commitment (someone remaining with the organization because of the salary and benefits) Normative commitment (when an employee hesitates to leave the organization because they â€Å"don’t want to leave the employer in a lurch†) (Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A.2007). Employee attitudes and behavior are important to an organization due to the negative impact that will cause a downfall in revenue and inefficient work flows in the organization. When an employee shows negative attitudes and behaviors towards their work ethics can at times negate the other employees’ behavior and attitudes, especially in a union environment.

Main Problems of Lexicology Essay

Lexicology is the study of words-their menanigs and relationships. * English vocabulary is one of the most extensive amongst the world’s lang.contains an immense number of words of forerign origin. * lexicology has to study the etymology of word,e.g.their origin, their development and function * And English is lang.which had changed a lot in a short period of time * So, lexicology has to deal with all the changes in grammar and the vocabulary. WHY ARE WORDS BORROWED FROM 1 LANGUAGE INTO ANOTHER 2 Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin.The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant word. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowing language, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers, in a French-speaking context. PHONETIC ADJUSTMENT OF BORROWED WORDS 3 Purely phonetic change involves no reshuffling of the contrasts of a phonological system. All phonological systems are complex affairs with many small adjustments in phonetics depending on phonetic environment, position in the word, and so on. For the most part, phonetic changes are examples of allophonic differentiation or assimilation, that is, sounds in specific environments acquire new phonetic features or perhaps lose phonetic features they originally had.Many phonetic changes provide the raw ingredients for later phonemic innovations. In Proto-Italic, for example, intervocalic */s/ became *[z]. This was a phonetic change, a mild and superficial complication in the phonological system only, but when this *[z] merged with */r/, the effect on the phonological system was greater. TRANSLATION LOANS 4 By translation-loans (calques) we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation. It is quite obvious that it is only compound words (i. e. words of two or more stems) which can be subjected to such an operation, each stem being translated separately: masterpiece (from German Meisterstà ¼ck), wonder child (from German Wunderkind), first dancer (from Italian prima-ballerina). ANTONYMS ACCORDING TO WORD DERIVATIONAL STRUCTURE 5 Derivational antonyms. The regular type of derivational antonyms contains negative prefixes: dis-, il- /im-/in-/ir and un-. Other negative prefixes occur in this function only occasionally. Modern English prefers to form an antonym with the prefix un-; the suffix –less is old and not productive anymore. In the oppositions like hopeful – hopeless, useful –useless the suffix –less is contrasting to the suffix -ful, not to the stem (otherwise the antonyms would be: hope – hopeless). E.g. selfish – unselfish, not selfish – â€Å"selfishless†. Derivational antonyms may be characterised as contradictory. A pair of derivational antonyms forms a binary opposition (complementary root antonyms). E.g. logical – illogical, appear – disappear. Not only words, but set expressions as well, can be grouped into antonymic pairs. E.g. by accident – on purpose. BROADENING AND NARROWING 6 â€Å"Broadening of meaning. This occurs when a word with a specific or limited meaning is widened. The broadening process is technically called generalization. An example of generalization is the word business, which originally meant ‘the state of being busy, careworn, or anxious,’ and was broadened to encompass all kinds of work or occupations.† Another example of the broadening of meaning is pipe. Its earliest recorded meaning was â€Å"a musical wind instrument†. Nowadays it can denote any hollow oblong cylindrical body (e. g. water pipes). This meaning developed through transference based on the similarity of shape (pipe as a musical instrument is also a hollow oblong cylindrical object) which finally led to a considerable broadening of the range of meaning. â€Å"Narrowing of meaning. This happens when a word with a general meaning is by degrees applied to something much more specific. The word litter, for example, meant originally (before 1300) ‘a bed,’ then gradually narrowed down to ‘bedding,’ then to ‘animals on a bedding of straw,’ and finally to things scattered about, odds and ends. . . . Other examples of specialization are deer, which originally had the general meaning ‘animal,’ girl, which meant originally ‘a young person,’ and meat, whose original meaning was ‘food.'† We say that narrowing takes place when a word comes to refer to only part of the original meaning. The history of the word hound in English neatly illustrates this process. The word was originally pronounced hund in English, and it was the generic word for any kind of dog at all. This original meaning is retained, for example, in German, where the word Hund simply means ‘dog.’ 7. Phraseological units are a kind of ready-made blocks which fit into the structure of a sentence performing a certain syntactical function, more or less as words do. EXP: We never know the value of water till the well is dry. You can take the horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink. Those who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. The first distinctive feature that strikes one is the obvious structural dissimilarity. If one compares proverbs and phraseological units in the semantic aspect, the difference seems to become obvious. Proverbs could be best compared with minute fables for, like the latter, they sum up the collective experience of the community. They moralize (Hell is paved with good intentions), give advice (Don’t judge a tree by its bark}, give warning (If you sing before breakfast, you will cry before night), admonish (Liars should have good memories) No phraseological unit ever does any of these things. They do not stand for whole statements as proverbs do but for a single concept. Their function in speech is purely nominative (i. e. they denote an object, an act, etc.). The function of proverbs in speech, though, is communicative (i. e. they impart certain information).

Medea: Passion vs. Reason

Medea: Passion vs. Reason â€Å"The passions are like fire, useful in a thousand ways and dangerous only in one, through their excess,† stated Christian Nestell Bovee a famous mid-19th century author. â€Å"Logic, like whiskey, loses its beneficial effect when taken in too large quantities,† stated Lord Dunsany a famous Anglo-Irish writer during the 1900s. These quotes demonstrate a strong theme in the Greek play Medea written by Euripides. In the play Medea, the protagonist Medea learns that her husband Jason breaks every vow and betrays her by taking another woman to bed.Feeling outraged and hurt, Medea decides to take revenge. She carries out her plan successfully and the play concludes with Medea escaping off to Athens. Throughout the play, two distinct concepts of beliefs and point of views are revealed in the two main characters of the play, Medea and Jason. Medea sees the world through the views of passion whereas Jason sees the world through the views of reason. The main characters express an extremity of either passion or reason which leads them to their own downfall; moreover, through both Medea and Jason's actions, the strength and weakness of each attribute is revealed.According to the Oxford Dictionary, passion is defined as a â€Å"strong and barely controllable emotion and a state or outburst of strong emotion†. The protagonist of the play, Medea, demonstrates an excessive passion which leads her to destruction. The strongest factor that contributes to Medea’s unreasonable passion is her extreme love for Jason. In the beginning of the play the nurse mourns that, â€Å"[Medea’s] heart on fire with passionate love for Jason; nor would she have persuaded the daughters of Pelias to kill their father†¦ and she herself helped Jason in every way† (P. 1).The protagonist passionate love for Jason deceives her thoughts and leaves her with nothing but hope for Jason’s love. However, Medea’s hope s trips and shatters to pieces when she learns that Jason has left her for another woman. Medea explains to the chorus that, â€Å"It has broken [her] heart. [She is] finished. † (P. 8). Medea simply wishes to die. However, Medea’s suicidal mind fades away as her excessive passion feeds upon her hatred and rage which leads her to uncalled acts of revenge. She calls out to the gods to pray that â€Å"[she] may see [Jason], him and his bride and their entire place hattered for the wrong they dare to do [her] without cause† (P. 6). Motivated by animosity, Medea successfully murders the Princess and the king. However, lost in the sea of hatred Medea then decides to â€Å"kill [her] own children† (P. 26). From her own actions, Medea destroys everything that she cares for due to an excessive in both love and hatred. Medea’s superfluous love makes her sacrifice her family, status, and home. Furthermore, Medea’s actions due to hatred destroy her futur e. For example, to achieve ultimate revenge, Medea kills her own two sons to make Jason suffer.However, at the same time â€Å"[Medea] feel the pain [herself]. [She] share[s] in [Jason’s] sorrow† (P. 44). The killing of her own children will make her feel a lifelong agony. For Medea, love does not simply turn to abhorrence. A main cause of this sudden shift in passion is Jason’s betrayal. Also to Medea, it is her redundant and hurtful pride that unleashes the hate inside her. Many times throughout the play Medea expresses â€Å"For it is not bearable to be mocked by enemies† (P. 26). Medea cannot allow others to laugh at her misfortune and only through the murder of her enemies could she feel redeemed and her pride restored.Reason defined by Oxford Dictionary means to â€Å"think, understand and form judgment logically†. Through his own excessive reasoning, the antagonist of the story, Jason, falls to destruction. Firstly in his mind, Jason sees ev erything to be explained by reason. Jason betrays Medea by marrying the Princess of Corinth. His purpose for such a cold hearted action is simply â€Å"that [they] might live well, and not be short of anything† (P. 18). To Jason, all the betraying is just a desperate act in hope to have what is best for the family. Secondly, in Jason‘s mind he never expects Medea to act irrationally because he neglects her feelings.In Jason’s eyes â€Å"it would have been for better far for men to have gotten their children in some other way, and women not to have existed† (P. 18). Jason believes that the only reason and positive outcome of marriage is children. Another example is when Jason argues that, â€Å" women have got such a state of mind that, if [their] life at night is good, [they] think [they] have everything; but, if in that quarter things go wrong, [they] will consider [their] best and truest interest most hateful† (P. 18). Jason thinks that Medea is o utraged because he took another woman to chamber. In addition, because he disregardedMedea’s love for him, he does not take into consideration that it is his betrayal that outrages Medea. Having too much reasoning and too little passion, Jason is left with nothing but hopeless and misery. Jason’s inability to see Medea’s revenge causes him to fall from the top to the bottom leaving him with nothing: no power, wealth, family, bloodlines and respect. In his last conversation with Medea, Jason cries that, â€Å"for [him] remains to cry aloud upon [his] fate, who will get no pleasure from [his] newly wedded love, and the boys whom [he] begot and brought up, never shall [he] speak to them alive.Oh, [his] life is over! † (P. 44). Medea’s final blow to Jason’s life is providing him with a prophecy about his death. In his character, Jason’s ratio of reason to passion is surely not proportional which blinds him from seeing Medea’s irrat ionality thus his downfall resulted. Everyone in society has both passion and reason. No one has one without the other. Both passion and reason have its own strengths and weakness which expresses through the main characters of Medea. Through the behaviors of Medea, many strength and weakness of passion are seen.For Medea, Passion is able to become strength and motivation for her reprisal. In text, Medea’s abundant love for Jason causes her to do anything for him, including sacrificing her own family. On the other hand, Medea’s excessive hatred overpowers her mind and becomes overboard with her actions. For instance, Medea plans â€Å"Next after [killing the princess]; for [she] shall kill [her] own children† (P. 26). Medea killing her own children will surely be the most evil act of humanity and all result from immoderate passion. Also, positive and negative aspects of logic are shown through Jason’s arguments.Strength of being rational is to be able to t hink about the positive and negative of things before making a decision. For example, â€Å"when [Jason] [arrives] here from the land of Iolcus †¦ [he] [is], in every kind of difficulty,† he exclaims, â€Å"what luckier chance could [he] have come across than this, an exile to marry the daughter of the king? †(P. 18). The outcomes of Jason’s plan have far more advantages than disadvantages. However, an extremity of reasoning may lead to neglecting the feelings of others. For instance, Jason neglects Medea’s love.Even though both have positive and negative aspects, in Euripides’ view having excessive passion is better than excessive reasoning. He consummates the play with Medea having her triumph and escaping to Athens with â€Å"such a chariot has Helius, [her] father’s father given [her] to defend from [her] enemies† (P. 43). With Medea having the final victory, readers may tell that Euripides chooses passion over reason. One ma y think, without the ability to feel and to have emotions, human would be no different from robots. These qualities are what make one human.The play Medea justifies both Christian Nestell Bovee’s point, â€Å"The passions are like fire, useful in a thousand ways and dangerous only in one, through their excess† and Lord Dunsany‘s view, â€Å"Logic, like whiskey, loses its beneficial effect when taken in too large quantities† . The extremity of passion and reason are revealed in the play Medea. Jason played a role of a rationalist and Medea an irrationalist. Via Medea’s superfluous passion, disastrous events occur in which guilt and grief will accompany Medea for the rest of her life. On the other hand, Jason is left with nothing due to his acute logical mind.His inconsideration for feelings and desire for acquisition are all causes of Jason’s denouement. Through the events in the story, properties, reason and passion have its own strength and weakness. Too much passion could lead to poor choices. On the contrary, de trop reasoning could lead one to a stone-heart. Both Jason and Medea possess an extremity of passion or reason which proves to be their hamartia. Even though each attribute has its own strength and weakness people should have a harmonic balance between reason and passion. Only then would one be ideal in making decisions. Just like in life, everything needs to have a balance.

Film review Movie Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 9

Film - Movie Review Example Similarly, Raphael who was previously arrogant and proud of his success is humbled when he fails to get a promotion. His arrogance is further humbled as he is forced to submit Lourdes’ intimidation. The film is also socially educative (Iglesia). The films major characters are Raphael and Lourdes while minor characters include sales women who are both Raphael’s and Lourdes’ ‘co-workers’, Antonio, their employer and the police. While Raphael and Lourdes develops the story line, the minor characters facilitates illustrations of traits of the major characters as well as applied literacy styles (Iglesia). One of the added techniques to the film is action. An example of action is in the physical encounter between Raphael and Antonio. The technique helped to enrich the literature through developing the story line, facilitating literacy styles, and illustrating the major characters’ traits (Iglesia). The play version of the film successfully portrayed literary works. This is because the play is rich in literacy styles such as irony through twist of events and dilemma that finally faced Raphael

E-commerce market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

E-commerce market - Essay Example In the past, critical success factors were typically related to business infra-structure. One significant issue was that of internet speed-with the majority of Internet users connecting to the Internet via dial-up modem, file transfer speeds were extremely low. This presented a problem when attempting to transmit large files such as multi-media files. With steady financial investment from both the government and private business enterprises, the rapid advance of technology in this area has led to the increasingly-widespread use of high-speed Internet connections such as cable modems, ISDN and XDSL, which increase file transfer speeds substantially. With communication speed being a limiting factor for the growth of electronic commerce, these developments in information and communication technology have initiated a marked reduction in infra-structural problems for electronic commerce. More recently, however, new success factors such as security and copyrights have increased in importan ce. Another significant issue for many Internet businesses is related to expenses. Traditional corporations are able to strengthen business strategies, enhance their image, provide efficient customer service, and create new Internet sales methods. However, popular Web sites have proven to require more resources than was once thought. According to recent research, Web sites which sell products collectively spend approximately 240 Won per year, while sites which sell content spend approximately 1 billion Won per year. Internet sites such as shopping malls, where actual transactions take place, spend around 3.35 billion Won every year. Companies which plan to move into electronic commerce must plan and invest efficiently in the initial stages of development in order to create profit within a reasonable period of time. There are several success factors which should be considered. E-businesses must provide good value for their customers, not only in terms of the products they sell, but also through ease of Web site navigation. They must differentiate themselves from other electronic commerce corporations to create a unique identity, and at the same time take care that they maintain the important characteristics of e-business. It is also particularly important to manage resources carefully and control initial expenses through the gradual introduction of new technologies, while allocating enough resources to brand management to win and maintain the trust of their customers. Research on business models has shown that these success factors are critical. Companies that survive the rapidly-changing electronic commerce environment have unique business fields and business models. The results of research on approximately 30 business corporations are presented here. Above all, successful electronic commerce corporations value for their customers. Through fluctuating markets, these companies continue to be competitive and profit from e-commerce. Many of these companies also successfully compete in off-line markets as well as on-line markets. They manage their brands effectively to maintain consumer trust, and use differentiated services and unique profit models to succeed in what is become a very competitive market-place. Finally, they have organized themselves in such a way that with flexible attitudes and infra-structure they can cope with a changing business environment and introduce new technologies at the most appropriate times. The results of this exploratory research indicate